Background:
Achieving a zero-carbon transition will require meeting global energy demands with renewable energy sources. Due to the intermittent nature of many renewable sources, achieving significant levels of integration will demand utility-scale energy storage systems. Li-ion batteries have dominated the market. However, rapidly growing demands in many technology sectors (e.g. electric vehicles, mobile electronics) necessitate the development of sustainable battery technology to avoid potential resource crises (e.g. lithium, cobalt, nickel) in the future. In addition, advanced performance including high energy density, low cost, long lifetime, fast-charging and better safety, are also significant.